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Survey (human research)

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In research of human subjects, a survey is a list of questions aimed for extracting specific data from a particular group of people. Surveys may be conducted by phone, mail, via the internet, and also in person in public spaces. Surveys are used to gather or gain knowledge in fields such as social research and demography.

Survey research is often used to assess thoughts, opinions and feelings.[1] Surveys can be specific and limited, or they can have more global, widespread goals. Psychologists and sociologists often use surveys to analyze behavior, while it is also used to meet the more pragmatic needs of the media, such as, in evaluating political candidates, public health officials, professional organizations, and advertising and marketing directors. Survey research has also been employed in various medical and surgical fields to gather information about healthcare personnel’s practice patterns and professional attitudes toward various clinical problems and diseases. Healthcare professionals that may be enrolled in survey studies include physicians,[2][3] nurses,[4] and physical therapists[5] among others. A survey consists of a predetermined set of questions that is given to a sample.[1] With a representative sample, that is, one that is representative of the larger population of interest, one can describe the attitudes of the population from which the sample was drawn. Further, one can compare the attitudes of different populations as well as look for changes in attitudes over time. A good sample selection is key as it allows one to generalize the findings from the sample to the population, which is the whole purpose of survey research. In addition to this, it is important to ensure that survey questions are not biased such as using suggestive words. This prevents inaccurate results in a survey.

Types

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Census

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Main article: Census

A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the members of a specific given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular population.[6] The term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing censuses; other common censuses include agriculture, business, and traffic censuses. The United Nations defines the essential features of population and housing censuses as "individual enumeration, universality within a defined territory, simultaneity and defined periodicity", and recommends that population censuses be taken at least every 10 years

Other household surveys

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Further information: List of household surveys in the United States

Other surveys than the census may explore characteristics in households, such as fertility, family structure, and demographics.

Household surveys with at least 10,000 participants include:

Opinion poll

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Main article: Opinion poll


An opinion poll is a survey of public opinion from a particular sample. Opinion polls are usually designed to represent the opinions of a population by conducting a series of questions and then extrapolating generalities in ratio or within confidence intervals.

Healthcare surveys

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Medical or health-related survey research is particularly concerned with uncovering knowledge-practice gaps. That is to say to reveal any inconsistencies between the established international recommended guidelines and the real time medical practice regarding a certain disease or clinical problem. In other words, some medical surveys aim at exploring the difference between the proper practice and the actual practice reported by the healthcare professionals.[3][13][14] Medical survey research has also been used to collect information from the patients,[15] caregivers[16] and even the public[17][18] on relevant health issues. In turn the information gathered from survey results can be used to upgrade the professional performance of healthcare personnel including physicians, develop the quality of healthcare delivered to patients,[2][3] mend existing deficiencies of the healthcare delivery system and professional health education.[19][20] Furthermore, the results of survey research can inform the public health domain and help conduct health awareness campaigns in vulnerable populations[15] and guide healthcare policy-makers. This is especially true when survey research deals with a wide spread disease that constitutes a nationwide or global health challenge.

The use of novel human survey distribution methods has a significant impact on research outcomes. A study demonstrates the effectiveness of innovative strategies such as QR-coded posters and targeted email campaigns in boosting survey participation among healthcare professionals involved in antibiotics research. These hybrid approaches not only fulfill healthcare survey targets but also have broad potential across various research fields. Emphasizing collaborative, multidisciplinary methods, the study highlights the necessity for inventive tactics post-pandemic to enhance global public health efforts. By identifying discrepancies between recommended guidelines and actual clinical practices, these strategies are vital for enhancing healthcare delivery, influencing public health initiatives, and shaping policy to address major health challenges. This is particularly relevant in medical survey or health-related human survey research, which aims to uncover gaps in knowledge and practice, thereby improving professional performance, patient care quality, and addressing systemic healthcare deficiencies.[21]

Methodology

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Main article: Survey methodology

A single survey is made of at least a sample (or full population in the case of a census), a method of data collection (e.g., a questionnaire) and individual questions or items that become data that can be analyzed statistically. A single survey may focus on different types of topics such as preferences (e.g., for a presidential candidate), opinions (e.g., should abortion be legal?), behavior (smoking and alcohol use), or factual information (e.g., income), depending on its purpose. Since survey research is almost always based on a sample of the population, the success of the research is dependent on the representativeness of the sample with respect to a target population of interest to the researcher. That target population can range from the general population of a given country to specific groups of people within that country, to a membership list of a professional organization, or list of students enrolled in a school system (see also sampling (statistics) and survey sampling).

Interpretation

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Correlation and causality

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Further information: Correlation does not imply causation

When two variables are related, or correlated, one can make predictions for these two variables.[1] However, this does not mean causality. At this point, it is not possible to determine a causal relationship between the two variables; correlation does not imply causality. However, correlation evidence is significant because it can help identify potential causes of behavior. Path analysis is a statistical technique that can be used with correlational data. This involves the identification of mediator and moderator variables. A mediator variable is used to explain the correlation between two variables. A moderator variable affects the direction or strength of the correlation between two variables. A spurious relationship is a relationship in which the relation between two variables can be explained by a third variable.

Moreover, in survey research, correlation coefficients between two variables might be affected by measurement error, what can lead to wrongly estimated coefficients and biased substantive conclusions. Therefore, when using survey data, we need to correct correlation coefficients for measurement error.

Reported behavior versus actual behavior

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The value of collected data completely depends upon how truthful respondents are in their answers on questionnaires.[1] In general, survey researchers accept respondents’ answers as true. Survey researchers avoid reactive measurement by examining the accuracy of verbal reports, and directly observing respondents’ behavior in comparison with their verbal reports to determine what behaviors they really engage in or what attitudes they really uphold.[1] Studies examining the association between self-reports (attitudes, intentions) and actual behavior show that the link between them—though positive—is not always strong—thus caution is needed when extrapolating self-reports to actual behaviors,[22][23][24] Dishonesty is pronounced in some sex-related queries, with men often amplifying their number of sex partners, while women tend to downplay and slash their true number.[25]

History

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The Statistical Society of London pioneered the questionnaire in 1838. "Among the earliest acts of the Statistical Society of London ... was the appointment of committees to enquire into industrial and social conditions. One of these committees, in 1838, used the first written questionnaire of which I have any record. The committee-men prepared and printed a list of questions 'designed to elicit the complete and impartial history of strikes.'"[26]

The most famous public survey in the United States of America is the national census. Held every ten years since 1790, the census attempts to count all persons, and also to obtain demographic data about factors such as age, ethnicity, and relationships within households.

Nielsen ratings (carried out since 1947) provide another example of public surveys in the United States. Nielsen rating track media-viewing habits (radio, television, internet, print) the results of which are used to make commissioning decisions. Some Nielsen ratings localize the data points to give marketing firms more specific information with which to target customers. Demographic data is also used to understand what influences work best to market consumer products, political campaigns, etc.

Following the invention of the telephone survey (used at least as early as the 1940s),[27] the development of the Internet in the late-20th century fostered online surveys and web surveys.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e Shaughnessy, J.; Zechmeister, E.; Jeanne, Z. (2011). Research methods in psychology (9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill. pp. 161–175. ISBN 9780078035180.
  2. ^ a b Kim, DY; Lee, YG; Kim, BS (July 2017). "Survey of Medical Oncology Status in Korea (SOMOS-K): A National Survey of Medical Oncologists in the Korean Association for Clinical Oncology (KACO)". Cancer Research and Treatment. 49 (3): 588–594. doi:10.4143/crt.2016.313. PMC 5512367. PMID 27658389.
  3. ^ a b c Gendy, S; ElGebeily, M; El-Sobky, TA; Khoshhal, KI; Jawadi, AH (2019). "Current practice and preferences to management of equinus in children with ambulatory cerebral palsy: A survey of orthopedic surgeons". SICOT-J. 5: 3. doi:10.1051/sicotj/2019003. PMC 6394235. PMID 30816087.
  4. ^ Abu Ali, RM; Abed, MA; Khalil, AA; Al-Kloub, MI; Ashour, AF; Alnsour, IA (2017). "A Survey on Sexual Counseling for Patients With Cardiac Disease Among Nurses in Jordan". The Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing. 33 (5): 467–473. doi:10.1097/JCN.0000000000000472. PMID 29601371. S2CID 4516071.
  5. ^ Stephensen, D; de Kleijn, P; Matlary, RED; Katzerova, M; McLaughlin, P; Ryan, A; Lobet, S; EAHAD Physiotherapists, Committee. (May 2019). "Scope of practice of haemophilia physiotherapists: A European survey". Haemophilia. 25 (3): 514–520. doi:10.1111/hae.13727. PMID 30866150.
  6. ^ Baffour, Bernard; King, Thomas; Valente, Paolo (2013). "The Modern Census: Evolution, Examples and Evaluation" (PDF). International Statistical Review. 81 (3): 407–425. doi:10.1111/insr.12036. ISSN 0306-7734. S2CID 120517126. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-04-14. Retrieved 2018-12-27.
  7. ^ Demographic Research, Volume 17, Book 1. BoD – Books on Demand. 2008. ISBN 9783837031959.
  8. ^ "About the Generations and Gender Programme". www.ggp-i.org. Archived from the original on 2016-02-06. Retrieved 2016-02-05.
  9. ^ "Integrated Household Survey". Archived from the original on 2016-01-07. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
  10. ^ "National Survey of Family Growth". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Archived from the original on January 6, 2020. Retrieved April 22, 2014.
  11. ^ "PSID - Studies". University of Michigan, Institute for Social Research. Archived from the original on 2019-06-15. Retrieved 2016-09-13.
  12. ^ "Understandingsociety.org.uk". Archived from the original on 2012-12-28. Retrieved 2016-05-17.
  13. ^ Manasfi, H; Hanna-Wakim, R; Akel, I; Yazbeck, N (February 2017). "Questionnaire-based survey in a developing country showing noncompliance with paediatric gastro-oesophageal reflux practice guidelines". Acta Paediatrica. 106 (2): 316–321. doi:10.1111/apa.13648. PMID 27792252. S2CID 20185554.
  14. ^ Salerno, S; Marchese, P; Magistrelli, A; Tomà, P; Matranga, D; Midiri, M; Ugazio, AG; Corsello, G (22 March 2015). "Radiation risks knowledge in resident and fellow in paediatrics: a questionnaire survey". Italian Journal of Pediatrics. 41: 21. doi:10.1186/s13052-015-0130-x. PMC 4391686. PMID 25881170.
  15. ^ a b Petroze, RT; Calland, JF; Niyonkuru, F; Groen, RS; Kyamanywa, P; Li, Y; Guterbock, TM; Rodgers, BM; Rasmussen, SK (July 2014). "Estimating pediatric surgical need in developing countries: a household survey in Rwanda". Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 49 (7): 1092–8. doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2014.01.059. PMID 24952795.
  16. ^ Pfeifer, LI; Silva, DB; Lopes, PB; Matsukura, TS; Santos, JL; Pinto, MP (May 2014). "Social support provided to caregivers of children with cerebral palsy". Child: Care, Health and Development. 40 (3): 363–9. doi:10.1111/cch.12077. PMID 23734935.
  17. ^ Abel, T; Hofmann, K; Ackermann, S; Bucher, S; Sakarya, S (September 2015). "Health literacy among young adults: a short survey tool for public health and health promotion research" (PDF). Health Promotion International. 30 (3): 725–35. doi:10.1093/heapro/dat096. PMID 24482542.
  18. ^ Alsous, M; Abdel Jalil, M; Odeh, M; Al Kurdi, R; Alnan, M (2019). "Public knowledge, attitudes and practices toward diabetes mellitus: A cross-sectional study from Jordan". PLOS ONE. 14 (3): e0214479. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1414479A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0214479. PMC 6440628. PMID 30925187.
  19. ^ Scherdel, P; Hjelm, N; Salaün, JF; EBGM IV study, group.; Heude, B; Chalumeau, M (July 2018). "Survey highlights important discrepancies between definitions of paediatric abnormal growth taught to medical students in 23 European countries". Acta Paediatrica. 107 (7): 1218–1222. doi:10.1111/apa.14266. PMID 29421846.
  20. ^ Prescott, GM; Vu, BN; Alsharif, NZ; Prescott WA, Jr (25 March 2017). "Global Health Education in Doctor of Pharmacy Programs in the United States". American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 81 (2): 28. doi:10.5688/ajpe81228. PMC 5374917. PMID 28381888.
  21. ^ Elshenawy, Rasha Abdelsalam (23 April 2024). "Novel survey distribution methods: impact on antimicrobial resistance research outcomes". JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance. 6 (2). Retrieved 25 April 2024.
  22. ^ Morwitz, Vicki G., and David Schmittlein. "Using segmentation to improve sales forecasts based on purchase intent: Which" intenders" actually buy?." Journal of Marketing Research (1992): 391–405.
  23. ^ Chandon, Pierre, Vicki G. Morwitz, and Werner J. Reinartz. "Do intentions really predict behavior? Self-generated validity effects in survey research." Journal of Marketing 69.2 (2005): 1–14.
  24. ^ Ajzen, Icek, and Martin Fishbein. "Factors influencing intentions and the intention-behavior relation." Human Relations 27.1 (1974): 1–15.
  25. ^ Wiederman, Michael W. "The truth must be in here somewhere: Examining the gender discrepancy in self‐reported lifetime number of sex partners." Journal of Sex Research 34.4 (1997): 375–386.
  26. ^ Gault, Robert H. (1907). "A History of the Questionnaire Method of Research in Psychology". The Pedagogical Seminary. 14 (3): 366–383. doi:10.1080/08919402.1907.10532551. Archived from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2019-12-11.
  27. ^ Bethlehem, Jelke; Biffignandi, Silvia (2011). "The Road to Web Surveys". Handbook of Web Surveys. Wiley Handbooks in Survey Methodology. Vol. 567. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 9. ISBN 9780470603567. Retrieved 2018-07-20. The first telephone survey in the Netherlands [...] The first telephone survey was conducted in the Netherlands on June 11, 1946.
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