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Than Shwe

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Not to be confused with Than Swe.
In this Burmese name, the given name is Than Shwe. There is no family name.
His Excellency[1]
Senior General
Agga Maha Thray Sithu
Than Shwe
သန်းရွှေ
Than Shwe in 2010
Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council
In office
23 April 1992 – 30 March 2011
Prime Minister
See list
DeputyMaung Aye
Preceded bySaw Maung
Succeeded byThein Sein (as president)
Commander-in-Chief of Defence Services
In office
23 April 1992 – 30 March 2011
DeputyMaung Aye
Preceded bySaw Maung
Succeeded byMin Aung Hlaing
Prime Minister of Myanmar
In office
23 April 1992 – 25 August 2003
LeaderHimself
Preceded bySaw Maung
Succeeded byKhin Nyunt
Personal details
Born (1933-02-02) 2 February 1933 (age 91)[2]
Kyaukse, Upper Burma, British Burma (present-day Myanmar)
SpouseKyaing Kyaing
RelationsNay Shwe Thway Aung (grandson)
ChildrenMultiple, including:
Htun Naing Shwe
Kyaing San Shwe
Thandar Shwe
Khin Pyone Shwe
Aye Aye Thin Shwe
Kyi Kyi Shwe
Dewa Shwe
Thant Zaw Shwe
Alma mater
Military service
Allegiance Myanmar
Branch/service Myanmar Army
Years of service1953–2011
Rank Senior General

Than Shwe (Burmese: သန်းရွှေ; pronounced [θáɰ̃ ʃwè]; born 2 February 1933) is a retired Burmese army general who held influential positions within Myanmar's government.[3][4] Serving as the chairman of the State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) from 1992 to 2011, he played a significant role in shaping the country's political landscape.[5][6][7][8][9][10] During his tenure, he exercised considerable authority, contributing to a centralized power structure.[11][12][13][14] His governance saw the implementation of various policies aimed at economic development, modernization and infrastructure improvements.[15][16][17][18] Than Shwe was also involved in efforts to stabilize the country and manage internal conflicts.[19] While his leadership was marked by significant achievements, it also faced scrutiny and criticism, particularly regarding allegations of human rights abuses and restrictions on political freedoms.[20][21][22][23] Than Shwe's tenure coincided with a period of political transition and international scrutiny, with Myanmar experiencing both internal and external challenges.[24][25][26][27]

Occupying key positions, including Prime Minister of Myanmar, Commander-in-Chief of Myanmar Defence Services, and head of the Union Solidarity and Development Association (USDA), Than Shwe has elicited various perspectives on his governance.[28][29][30][31][32] In March 2011, he officially stepped down as head of state, facilitating the transition to his chosen successor, Thein Sein.[33][34][35][36][37] As the head of the Armed Forces, he was succeeded by Senior General Min Aung Hlaing.[38][39][40] Than Shwe continues to wield significant influence within the military.[41][42][43][44][45]

Early life and education

[edit]

Than Shwe was born on 2 February 1933, in Minzu village, near Kyaukse, British Burma (now Myanmar), to his parents, Lay Myint and Seinn Yin.[46][47][48][49] His early education led him to Government High School in Kyaukse, where he completed his studies in 1949.[50][51] Following his education, he began his career as a postal clerk at the Meikhtila Post Office.[52][53][54] However, his path shifted towards the military when he enlisted in the Burmese Army, joining the ninth intake of the Officers Training School, Bahtoo.[55][56][57][58]

Military career and rise to power

[edit]

After graduating from the Officer Training School, Second Lieutenant Than Shwe assumed the role of a squad leader in No. 1 Infantry Battalion on 11 July 1953.[59][60][61][62] Progressing through the ranks, he was promoted to platoon commander in 1955 with the rank of lieutenant.[63][64][65][66] On 21 February 1957, he advanced to the position of company commander within the same battalion, holding the rank of captain.[67][68][69] He demonstrated early leadership and strategic capabilities during military operations in Karen State, Southern Shan State, and the Eastern Thanlwin area conducted by No. 1 Infantry Battalion.[70][71][72]

On 26 February 1958, Than Shwe's career took an international turn as he was assigned to the newly established Directorate of Education and Psychological warfare within the War Office.[73][74][75] Between April 1958 and November 1958, he underwent specialized army officers' training in the Soviet Union, conducted by the KGB.[76][77][78] Subsequently, on 9 December 1961, he assumed the role of a company commander in No. 1 Psychological Warfare Battalion under Northern Regional Military Command on 9 December 1961.[79][80][81] He later became the psychological warfare officer of the 3rd Infantry Brigade on 4 December 1961. On 18 December 1963, he was transferred to Central Political College as an instructor.[82][83] He was then posted to 101 Light Infantry Battalion as a temporary company commander for the battalion headquarters unit.[84][85][86][87]

Promoted to the rank of major, Than Shwe joined the 77th (LID) Light Infantry Division on 27 January 1969.[88][89][90] Between 1969 and 1971, he successfully completed the Higher Command and Staff Course at the Frunze Military Academy in the Soviet Union.[91][92] During the tenure with the 77th LID, he actively participated in military operations across Karen State, Irrawaddy Delta region and Bago Hills.[93][94] He was transferred to Operations Planning Department within the Office of Chief of Staff (Army) as a General Staff Officer (G2) on 16 December 1969.[95][96] Than Shwe was nicknamed 'the bulldog' in the military.[97][98]

He assumed the role of a No. 1 Infantry Battalion on 23 August 1971 and earned a promotion to the rank of lieutenant colonel on 7 September 1972. As the commanding officer of No. 1 Infantry Battalion, he actively participated in offensive operations against various insurgents carried out by the 88th Light Infantry Division (LID) in the Bhamo region, Northern Shan State, Southern Shan State, and Eastern Shan State. Than Shwe was then transferred back to the Operations Planning Department within the Office of Chief of Staff (ARMY) as a General Staff Officer (G1) on 4 August 1975. On 26 March 1977, he attained the rank of a colonel and assumed the position of deputy commander of the 88th LID Light Infantry Division on 2 May 1978.[99]

In March 1980, Than Shwe became commanding officer of the 88th LID. He oversaw various operations, including Operation Ye Naing Aung, Operation Nay Min Yang, and Operation Min Yan Aung, carried out by the 88th LID. In 1981, he was elected as a member of the ruling Burma Socialist Programme Party's Central Executive Committee during the fourth session of the Party's conference.[100]

He took on the role of commanding officer at the Southern Western Regional Military Command on 22 July 1983 and subsequently became the chairman of Irrawaddy Division Party Committee on 5 August 1983. Than Shwe was promoted to brigadier general on 16 August 1984 and assumed the position of vice chief of staff (Army) on 4 November 1985.[101]

Promoted to major general on 4 November 1986 and to lieutenant general on 4 November 1987, he assumed the position of Deputy Minister of Defence on 27 July 1988.[102]

After the military coup on 18 September 1988, following the democracy uprising of 1988, Than Shwe became vice-chairman of State Law and Order Restoration Council (SLORC), a 21-member military cabinet headed by Senior General Saw Maung. He was promoted to the rank of full general and assumed the positions of vice-commander in chief of the Myanmar Armed Forces and commander-in-chief of the Myanmar Army on 18 March 1990.[103]

On 23 April 1992, Senior General Saw Maung unexpectedly resigned, citing health reasons.[104] Than Shwe elevated himself to the rank of senior general and replaced Saw Maung as the head of the State Law and Order Restoration Council and commander-in-chief of the Myanmar Armed Forces.

Style of leadership

[edit]
Indian president A. P. J. Abdul Kalam and the prime minister Manmohan Singh with Senior General Than Shwe, on October 25, 2004

Than Shwe relaxed some state control over the economy, and was a supporter of Burma's participation in the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). He also oversaw a large crackdown on corruption, which saw the sackings of a number of cabinet ministers and regional commanders in 1997.

The convention for the "Discipline Democracy New Constitution" was convened from 9 January 1993 to 3 September 2007, a period of more than 14 years and 8 months. Although the main opposition party, National League for Democracy (NLD) led by Aung San Suu Kyi, which won the multi-party democracy general election in 1990, did not participate, the chairman of National Convention Lieutenant General Thein Sein announced that the creation of the "Constitution" had been accomplished.

Than Shwe has continued the suppression of the free press in Burma, and has overseen the detention of journalists who oppose his regime. While he oversaw the release of Aung San Suu Kyi during the late 1990s, he also oversaw her return to detention in 2003. Despite his relaxation of some restrictions on Burma's economy, his economic policies have been often criticized as ill-planned.[105][106]

He maintains a low profile, often perceived as reserved and serious, with a reputation as a hardliner and a skilled manipulator. Some observers note that he opposes the democratization of Burma.[107] He marks national holidays and ceremonies with messages in the state-run newspapers but rarely engages with the press. The lavish wedding of his daughter, involving diamonds and champagne, was particularly controversial in a country whose people continue to suffer enormous poverty and enforced austerity.[108]

India's President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam is being welcomed by Senior General Than Shwe, on arrival at Yangon International Airport, Myanmar, 2006

Power struggles have plagued Burma's military leadership. Than Shwe has been linked to the toppling and arrest of Prime Minister Khin Nyunt in 2004, which has significantly increased his own power.[109] The former premier, who said he supported Aung San Suu Kyi's involvement in the National Convention, was seen as a moderate at odds with the junta's hardliners.

Than Shwe is said to rely heavily on advice from his soothsayers, a style of ruling dating back to General Ne Win, a leader who once shot his mirror to avoid bad luck.[110]

In May and November 2006 he met with the United Nations special envoy Ibrahim Gambari in the newly built capital of Naypyidaw, which had replaced Yangon in the previous year, and permitted Gambari to meet with Aung San Suu Kyi. However, Than Shwe refused to meet Gambari when he visited Burma in November 2007 and again on 10 March 2008.[111]

In early May 2008, Than Shwe refused many foreign aid workers from entering the country in the aftermath of Cyclone Nargis (2 May 2008).[112] This led to many criticisms from the UN as well as the international community.

In early July 2009, the UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-Moon visited Burma and held talks with Senior General Than Shwe. The military junta rejected UN Secretary General's request to meet with Aung San Suu Kyi. Than Shwe also commented on the upcoming 2010 Burmese election, saying that by the time the UN chief next visits Burma, "I will be an ordinary citizen, a lay person, and my colleagues will too because it will be a civilian government."[113]

On 27 August 2010, rumours surfaced that Than Shwe and his deputy, Vice-Senior General Maung Aye, along with six other top military officers, had resigned their military posts, and that he was expected to remain head of state until at least the end of the 2011 fiscal year, when he would transfer his position to the elected president.[114] The rumor was proven false as the Burmese state media referred to him as "Senior General" three days later.[115]

Human rights controversies

[edit]
Senior General Than Shwe meets with Thai Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva at Naypyidaw in 2010.

Than Shwe's leadership has faced criticism for violence and human rights abuses. According to Amnesty International, human rights violation in Myanmar were described as "widespread and systematic."[116] Reports suggested that a significant number of Burmese individuals, potentially reaching up to a million, were allegedly subjected to forced labor in "jungle gulags". The absence of free speech and intolerance towards dissent were notable characteristics of the government. In 2007, during the Saffron Revolution, mass demonstrations led by Buddhist monks were suppressed by security forces, resulting in casualties and detentions.[117] Persistent rumors circulated that thousands of monks and others being rounded up and summarily executed, with their bodies reportedly dumped in the jungle.[116]

In 1998 Than Shwe ordered the execution of 59 civilians living on Christie Island. The local commander initially hesitated, expressing concerns about the issuing commander's alleged intoxication, but was informed that the instruction came from "Aba Gyi" or "Great Father"—a term used to refer to Senior General Than Shwe.[118]

Health and family

[edit]

Than Shwe's wife, Kyaing Kyaing, is of Chinese and Pa'O descent. They have five daughters, Aye Aye Thit Shwe, Dewa Shwe, Khin Pyone Shwe, Kyi Kyi Shwe, and Thandar Shwe, and three sons, Kyaing San Shwe, Thant Zaw Shwe and Htun Naing Shwe.[119][120] Than Shwe is known to be a diabetic,[109] and he is rumored to have intestinal cancer.[121] Little else is known about his private life as he rarely makes public appearances or discloses personal information.[122]

Than Shwe flew to Singapore on 31 December 2006. Concerns about Than's health intensified after he failed to appear at an official Independence Day dinner for military leaders, officials, and diplomats on 4 January 2007. It was the first time since he took power in 1992 that Shwe did not host the annual dinner. Than Shwe had checked out of the Singapore General Hospital, where he had been receiving treatment, and returned to Burma two weeks later.[citation needed]

In 2006, a home video footage of the wedding of Than Shwe's daughter, Thandar Shwe, was leaked on the Internet, which sparked controversy and criticism from Burmese and foreign media for the lavish and seemingly ostentatious reception.[108][123] After days of Saffron Revolution, there were unconfirmed reports that Than Shwe's wife and pets fled the country on 27 September 2007, possibly to Laos.[citation needed]

In January 2009, Than Shwe was talked into buying one of the world's most popular football clubs, Manchester United, for $1 billion by his favourite grandson Nay Shwe Thway Aung. However, he reportedly abandoned the plan, because such an investment only months after nearly 150,000 people were killed by Cyclone Nargis was deemed inappropriate.[124]

In August 2021, Than Shwe and his wife tested positive for COVID-19. They have been warded at the 1,000-bed military-owned hospital in Thaik Chaung.[125][126]

On 23 October 2024, a significant event unfolded when Nay Soe Maung, Than Shwe's son-in-law married to Kyi Kyi Shwe, was detained by Myanmar's current military government in Pyigyidagun Township, Mandalay.[127][128] A medical doctor and former military officer, Nay Soe Maung is also the father of Nay Shwe Thway Aung, Than Shwe's grandson.[129][130] The authorities cited concerns over his social media activities, claiming they disrupted public order and incited unrest.[131][132] This arrest has drawn attention, particularly given Nay Soe Maung's previous criticisms of the military’s response to civil resistance after the 2021 coup.[133][134]

The incident reflects the ongoing tensions within Myanmar’s military elite and raises questions about the enduring influence of Than Shwe's legacy. Despite his past ties to the current leadership, Nay Soe Maung's situation highlights that familial connections do not guarantee protection in the current political landscape.[135][136][137]

In a show of support for his father, Nay Shwe Thway Aung posted on his Facebook story on 26 October 2024: "Doing such things makes the people suffer... Let's think carefully," and in Burmese: "အဲ့လိုတွေလုပ်လေပြည်သူကနာကျည်းလေ.. စဉ်းစားချင့်ချိန်လုပ်ကြပါ.." This statement underscores the challenges facing those within the former ruling elite as they navigate the complexities of the current military regime.

Yadaya rituals

[edit]
In an October 2010 state visit, Burmese State Peace and Development Council members greeted Thai PM Abhisit Vejjajiva in acheik patterned longyi typically worn by women. Various sources attributed this to yadaya practices.

Than Shwe often performed superstitious yadaya rituals to maintain his power and followed the advice of astrologers and shamans. A seated jade Buddha statue that Than Shwe had carved in his image was erected in 1999 at the southern entrance of Shwedagon pagoda. It is on a list of unorthodox statues drawn up by the religious affairs ministry. Former UN secretary-general Ban Ki-moon and Chinese president Xi Jinping are among those who have paid respects at the statue during visits to Yangon.[138]

As a notoriously superstitious, the unusual clothing choices, namely the wearing of traditional female acheik-patterned longyi (sarongs) by Than Shwe and other military generals at public appearances, including Union Day celebrations in February 2011 and at the reception of the Lao Prime Minister Bouasone Bouphavanh in June 2011 have also been attributed to yadaya, as a way to divert power to neutralize Aung San Suu Kyi's power.[139][140]

References

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  1. ^ by His Excellency Senior General Than Shwe Chairman of the State Law and Order Restoration Council Prime Minister of the Union of Myanmar
  2. ^ "Than Shwe". Alternative Asean Network on Burma. Archived from the original on 19 July 2008. Retrieved 2 July 2008.
  3. ^ "Than Shwe – Myanmar soldier and politician, leader of the ruling military leadership in Myanmar (Burma) from 1992 to 2011". Britannica.
  4. ^ Simon Roughneen (15 December 2010). "Earlier in 2007, China facilitated talks between the US and the Burmese government, with Beijing's diplomats suggesting that the US deal directly with junta chief Senior General Than Shwe, according to the documents released by WikiLeaks". The Irrawaddy.
  5. ^ "Hearty Congratulations to Burmese Military Leader Senior General Than Shwe". Amnesty International.
  6. ^ Egreteau, Renaud (19 October 2009). "Born in February 1933, Senior-General Than Shwe has been the leader of the Burmese junta since 1992". SciencesPo.
  7. ^ Wai Moe (10 February 2011). "Myint Aung Dismissed, Placed Under House Arrest. At the time, rumors from Naypyidaw suggested that Than Shwe favored Myint Aung and Ko Ko to succeed him and his deputy, Vice Senior General Maung Aye, respectively". The Irrawaddy.
  8. ^ Wai Moe (21 July 2011). ""The current rulers do not need them," he said, ruling out the possibility that the new government might want to recruit their services. However, a Naypyidaw source said he thought that it was unlikely that Khin Nyunt and his family would be released in the near future. The junta leaders discussed the possible release of Khin Nyunt before the new administration came into office in late March, but the move, proposed by Vice Senior General Maung Aye, was rejected by Senior General Than Shwe, he said". The Irrawaddy.
  9. ^ John Aglionby (13 February 2001). "War of blame after Thai-Burmese border clashes". The Guardian.
  10. ^ Min Lwin (29 September 2009). "A Rising Four-star General". The Irrawaddy.
  11. ^ Sa Tun, Aung (26 October 2023). "How a protected coastline became the private property of Than Shwe's daughters". Myanmar Now.
  12. ^ "Than Shwe had by now risen through the ranks of the military regime and its 'Burma Socialist Programme Party'. Born in 1933 – prior to Burma's invasion by Japan during World War Two, and its independence from Britain thereafter – he began his working life delivering mail". New Internationalist. 1 September 2005.
  13. ^ "Senior General Than Shwe has reportedly endorsed Burma's No 3 ranking general, joint chief-of-staff Gen Thura Shwe Mann, to become Burma's new president. The move came during a recent cabinet meeting in Naypyidaw, according to sources. "You are going to be president," Than Shwe reportedly told his subordinate". The Irrawaddy. 16 July 2009.
  14. ^ Wai Moe (31 January 2011). "Leaked information from Naypyidaw on Monday evening suggested that junta chief Senior General Than Shwe had chosen Prime Minister ex-general Thein Sein to be the new president of Burma. Thein Sein, who retired from the army in April to lead the junta's proxy party, the Union Solidarity and Development Party, is Than Shwe's long-term friend and close aide". The Irrawaddy.
  15. ^ Wai Moe (1 February 2011). "Following the opening sessions of both of the Parliamentary Houses in Naypyidaw, one thing is certain—neither of the nation's top two generals, Senior General Than Shwe and Vice Senior General Maung Aye, will be President nor a Vice-president". The Irrawaddy.
  16. ^ Aung Zaw (31 October 2007). "Than Shwe: The Man in the Iron Mask". The Irrawaddy.
  17. ^ Lawi Weng (29 March 2010). "Thangyat Songs Ridicule Than Shwe's Election". The Irrawaddy.
  18. ^ Lawi Weng (2 November 2009). "Former Thai PM to Visit His 'Brother' Than Shwe". The Irrawaddy.
  19. ^ "Than Shwe's biography released in India". Burma News International. 19 November 2010.
  20. ^ Matt Kennard, Claire Provost (19 March 2015). "Burma's bizarre capital: a super-sized slice of post-apocalypse suburbia". The Guardian.
  21. ^ Saw Yan Naing (9 January 2008). "University Privileges Granted to Than Shwe's Grandson". The Irrawaddy.
  22. ^ "Naypyidaw's Version of Shwedagon Pagoda Nears Completion". The Irrawaddy. 6 March 2009.
  23. ^ Aung Zaw (28 February 2014). "The Doubly Disastrous Legacy of Ne Win". The Irrawaddy.
  24. ^ "Senior General Than Shwe, the Burmese military's 'old fox'". Reuters. 4 October 2007.
  25. ^ Nyi Nyi, Kyaw (27 October 2021). "Burmese army general Senior General Than Shwe created a sheltered Tatmadaw family. Living side by side in cantonments, soldiers train and farm. Their wives go to meetings with fellow military wives, and their children go to military-run public schools or attend schools outside in Tatmadaw trucks". East Asia Forum.
  26. ^ Aung Zaw (9 December 2011). "Is Than Shwe Still Pulling the Strings?". The Irrawaddy.
  27. ^ Patrick Symmes (28 July 2008). "The Generals in Their Labyrinth". Outside Magazine.
  28. ^ "Military Watch: Regime boss targets 'Western culture'; Than Shwe Falls From Favor; and More". The Irrawaddy. 4 March 2023.
  29. ^ "Whatever happened to the leader of Myanmar Senior General Than Shwe?". Southeast Asia Globe.
  30. ^ "For Suu Kyi and Than Shwe, an Inconvenient Truce". The Irrawaddy. 14 December 2015.
  31. ^ "Has former Burmese army general Than Shwe retained his influence?". Frontier Myanmar. 11 September 2016.
  32. ^ Lin Thant (20 March 2013). "Retired Spy Master Makes TV Appearance with Shwe Mann". The Irrawaddy.
  33. ^ "Myanmar's Military Chief Staged a Coup. But He Did Not Act Alone". The Irrawaddy. 13 August 2021.
  34. ^ Anne, Gearan (19 May 2013). "Burma's Thein Sein says military 'will always have a special place' in government". The Washington Post.
  35. ^ "This political transition was a top-down approach, initiated and implemented by the regime—particularly by Than Shwe's successor, President Thein Sein, along with the vital participation of Aung San Suu Kyi in the latter stages of reform". Oxford Academic.
  36. ^ Alex Williams (4 May 2008). "But the campaign's success may depend less on Hollywood and more on whether it can clearly convey the complex, closed world of Myanmar politics. The government, led since 1992 by Senior General Than Shwe, tightly controls the press and visitors are rarely permitted in". The New York Times.
  37. ^ Htet Aung (6 July 2011). "Cronyism: A Legacy of Military Rule in Burma". The Irrawaddy.
  38. ^ "Later that month, an envoy from the CCP came and met former military leader Senior General Than Shwe — now 90 years old — who had nurtured closer relations with China than Min Aung Hlaing. The envoy also met former president Thein Sein". East Asia Forum. 17 June 2023.
  39. ^ "Myanmar Army Chief Min Aung Hlaing Visits Former leader of Myanmar Than Shwe". The Irrawaddy. 21 April 2022.
  40. ^ "Myanmar military chief leaves for India. YANGON: Myanmar's army chief Senior General Than Shwe departed Sunday for a goodwill visit to India at the invitation of the Indian president, officials confirmed". The New Indian Express. 16 May 2012.
  41. ^ "During his visit to Myanmar, Qin Gang also met with former Chairman of the Myanmar State Peace and Development Council Than Shwe". Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China. 3 May 2023.
  42. ^ "Has former army leader Senior General Than Shwe retained his influence?". Frontier Myanmar. 11 September 2016.
  43. ^ Robert, Horn (11 April 2011). "Is Burma's leader Than Shwe Really Retiring?". TIME Magazine.
  44. ^ Bill, Ide (23 November 2011). "Burmese Press Mention 'Retired' Former Leader Than Shwe". Voice of America News.
  45. ^ Wai Moe (15 August 2009). "US Senator Meets Than Shwe, Suu Kyi". The Irrawaddy.
  46. ^ "၂၀၁၅ အထွေထွေ ရွေးကောက်ပွဲ မဲဆန္ဒရှင်စာရင်း (Voter list)" (Press release). Union Election Commission. 14 September 2015. Retrieved 15 September 2015.
  47. ^ "Than Shwe's Grandson Visits France: Sources". The Irrawaddy. 16 November 2011.
  48. ^ Yan Pai (21 December 2010). "Senior General's Grandson Orders Attack on Business Rival". The Irrawaddy.
  49. ^ "Than Shwe's Grandson Steals the Show". The Irrawaddy. December 2009.
  50. ^ "Burma/Myanmar Sets Election Date". Asia Society. 13 August 2010.
  51. ^ Wei Yan Aung (10 May 2019). "Referendum on Military-Drafted Constitution Pursued Amid Cyclone Devastation". The Irrawaddy.
  52. ^ "Top 10 Sensational Facts about Than Shwe". Discover Walks. 7 August 2022.
  53. ^ Aung, Zaw (28 February 2013). "Every calculation and decision the opposition makes must have at its foundation an awareness of this history, because it reveals Than Shwe and his fellow generals' current propensities. And every Burma watcher, whether full-blown participant or armchair analyst, should also be familiar with the two leaders that have turned Burma into the country that it is—and is not—today". The Irrawaddy.
  54. ^ Wai Moe (18 December 2008). "Than Shwe's Dynastic Family Dream on Parade at State Function". The Irrawaddy.
  55. ^ "Members of State Peace and Development Council (SPDC)". The Irrawaddy. 1 November 2003. Archived from the original on 19 February 2023. Retrieved 19 February 2023.
  56. ^ Aung Lwin Oo (1 September 2005). "Thai Foreign Minister Meets Than Shwe". The Irrawaddy.
  57. ^ "India, Myanmar to boost bilateral ties – PM will hold wide-ranging talks with the 77-year-old Than Shwe, the head of SPDC, the ruling military junta in Myanmar". The New Indian Express. 16 May 2012.
  58. ^ "When Burma's former head of military intelligence and prime minister Khin Nyunt was purged from the ruling regime in 2004, his successor, then General Thura Shwe Mann, famously said that in Burma, as in other civilized countries, "no one is above the law."". The Irrawaddy. 28 January 2011.
  59. ^ Saw Yan Naing (30 November 2016). "Does the KNU Seek Support from Naypyidaw?". The Irrawaddy.
  60. ^ "China Stresses Border Stability at Than Shwe Meet". The Irrawaddy. 9 September 2010.
  61. ^ Arkar Moe (6 May 2009). "Experts Challenge Than Shwe's Rice Production Claims". The Irrawaddy.
  62. ^ "Than Shwe's New Pagoda Hides More than a Buddha Relic". The Irrawaddy. 10 March 2009.
  63. ^ "The Day Ex-military leader Than Shwe's Reign Began". The Irrawaddy. 23 April 2019.
  64. ^ "Disreputable Commanders-in-Chief of the Myanmar's Military". The Irrawaddy. 14 December 2021.
  65. ^ "Myanmar's Ghost Capital Rises From The Jungle. That leader, Senior General Than Shwe, stepped down this year — in theory, at least — but the city he ordered built is almost finished". NPR. 18 November 2011.
  66. ^ Min Lwin (15 July 2009). "Than Shwe and Family Make Offerings at Shwedagon Pagoda". The Irrawaddy.
  67. ^ "When Senior General Than Shwe began the relocation of Burma's administrative capital to Naypyidaw - the 'Abode of the Gods' - in November 2005 the move was put down by some to folly and superstition. The reality, however, of the relocation of Burma's ministries and military headquarters to this area of tropical scrub, 200 miles distant from Rangoon, was more prosaic". The Guardian. 30 September 2007.
  68. ^ Yeni (November 2010). "The Man with the Plan – This was good enough for Than Shwe, who knows that all he really needs to get the job done is a free hand to do as he pleases inside Burma without having to worrying too much about negative repercussions beyond its borders. This was why, when visiting Thai Prime Minister Abhisit Vejjajiva attempted to convey other countries' doubts about the credibility of the election during his trip to Burma on Oct. 11, Than Shwe told him he was "aware of the concerns, but did not want any outside help." With this cloud of neutrality now surrounding Burma's election, Than Shwe can now proceed to declare victory, as long as he maintains his grip on the situation inside the country. He knows now that even in the distant West, he has allies who, while they don't actually support him, are willing to let him win this one, if only so he'll go away and make room for a new generation of leaders". The Irrawaddy.
  69. ^ Aung Zaw (25 December 2008). "Than Shwe, Voodoo and the Number 11". The Irrawaddy.
  70. ^ Wai Moe (20 December 2007). "Senior General Than Shwe's wife Kyaing Kyaing is recovering from a stroke, according to a source close to the Tatmadaw (Burma's armed forces)". The Irrawaddy.
  71. ^ Aung Thet Wine (1 June 2010). "Than Shwe Family Will Not Take Part in Pagoda Ceremonies". The Irrawaddy.
  72. ^ Aung Zaw (25 April 2013). "The former commander-in-chief of the armed forces soon discovered that soldiers surrounded his home and he had been placed under house arrest. The infuriated Saw Maung yelled at his personal staff officers and family members, sending his wife rushing to the Defense Ministry on Signal Road, where she asked for a face-to-face meeting with top brass and lashed out to no avail at Than Shwe and Khin Nyunt—all to the amusement of junior officers who were present. With Than Shwe now the chairman of the SLORC, astrologer U Nyan Zaw's prediction that he would one day become king of Burma was looking less like a joke and more like a prescient prediction. But there was still an ongoing power struggle between Than Shwe and Khin Nyunt which neither could display in public". The Irrawaddy.
  73. ^ Aung Zaw (5 March 2019). "For U Shwe Mann, Enemies Lurk Everywhere". The Irrawaddy.
  74. ^ Tini Tran (9 September 2010). "China Extends Welcome to Than Shwe". The Irrawaddy.
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  77. ^ Tini Tran (8 September 2010). "China Military Leader Urges Closer Than Shwe Ties". The Irrawaddy.
  78. ^ Wai Moe (14 December 2009). "Burmese Media Lead with Than Shwe's Favorites". The Irrawaddy.
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Bibliography

[edit]
  • Johnson, Robert (2005). A region in turmoil: South Asian conflicts since 1947. Reaktion Books. ISBN 978-1-86189-257-7.
[edit]
Political offices
Preceded by Chairman of the State Law and Order Restoration Council
After 1997 State Peace and Development Council
1992–2011 		Succeeded byas President of Myanmar
Prime Minister of Myanmar
1992–2003 		Succeeded by
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